The Dutch West India Company (WIC) had limited military power on the West African coast, with no more than a few hundred white soldiers, the majority of whom were unfit for service due to illness; Europeans did not thrive in the hot, humid climate. The small number of active soldiers also had to be divided among the various other trading posts along the coast.

The Company’s military capacity was also largely focused outward: the Dutch were primarily concerned about threats from the sea (European competitors and Zeeland smugglers). This explains the importance of Fort Coenraadsburg, whose massive artillery protected both Elmina and the adjacent indigenous settlement.

For inland defense as well as maintaining public order, the Dutch relied on indigenous militias: the asafo.

Due to Elmina's independence from the surrounding indigenous kingdoms, a population emerged that identified less with their original tribal origins and more with their Elminese identity, which had become closely tied to the Dutch. Elmina was divided into seven quarters, where mutual solidarity was based on a common ancestor. From these familial ties, the asafo militias arose.

Under European influence, the Elminese broke with a typical Akan tradition: matrilineal descent (matriarchy). Members of the asafo were recruited through the paternal line: sons were included in the quarter of their father. The asafo were led by a flagbearer, and in times of military conflict, they appointed a tufohen, the leader of all asafo combined.

In total, the quarters counted approximately four thousand able-bodied men.

Relationships between European men and African women often resembled actual marriages. A contract was signed, and a ritual was performed that bound the man and woman together. Sometimes a Dutch man would also "marry" a slave. This did not necessarily mean the woman was of low social status; she could also belong to an important local family.

A tapoeyer was a child of an African mother and a white (Dutch) father. These mulattoes or mixed-race children had a special status in Elmina and lived in their own quarter of the village, known as the Akrampafo. The tapoeyers were part of the castle’s entourage and grew up with little connection to the indigenous community. Their status depended on their mother’s position: if she was a slave, the children belonged to the father; if she was free, the children also had a free status but lacked ties to an indigenous family.

Dutch fathers often took advantage of the opportunity to register their sons as soldiers for the Company. Due to a persistent manpower shortage, it was common practice as early as the 17th century to supplement the WIC garrison with tapoeyers. However, this did not prevent the children from being left in dire circumstances if their father died unexpectedly, particularly if the father had been a soldier himself. To alleviate such hardships, a "mulatto fund" had long been established; fathers were expected to contribute to it during their lifetime. Upon the father’s death or repatriation, the accumulated amount would be paid out to his children.

As soldiers, tapoeyers were valued for two reasons: firstly, their African heritage made them less susceptible to the diseases of the Gold Coast compared to European soldiers, and secondly, they had no familial ties to the indigenous tribes (anymore), ensuring their unquestioned loyalty to the Company.

In the 18th century, the Company’s garrison was at risk of becoming overwhelmingly composed of tapoeyer recruits, leading to complaints from European soldiers. As a result, a new asafo was formed from the tapoeyer quarter: Asafo No. 10, the Akrampafo, or "free citizens."

Sources: Geweld in de West: Een militaire geschiedenis van de Nederlandse Atlantische wereld, 1600-1800, Engelfriet , and Slavernijenjij.

One of the main characters in Black Cattle is bomba Jan Michielsz, a tapoeyer who worked his way up to become a slave overseer aboard the slave ship Griffin. In historical literature, the bomba is only mentioned in passing, which is striking, as it was a unique position exclusive to the Dutch. There is no precise English translation for the term bomba, but "overseer" comes closest to capturing the role and responsibilities. The bomba served both on the African coast and aboard ships of the WIC and the Middelburgsche Commercie Compagnie from Zeeland (1720-1888), a later competitor of the West India Company.

Those who worked as bombas were Africans. For Dutch slave traders, their presence on slave ships was crucial, as they served as intermediaries between the crew and the captives. The bomba spoke both Dutch and the common African languages.

The bombas were paid for their work. Additionally, it was customary for them to travel with the slave ship from America to the Netherlands, stay there for some time, and return to Africa when a ship became available.

No evidence has been found of bombas working as free individuals on ships of non-Dutch slave traders.